Originally appears in the Spring 2010 issue
In this modern day of GPS, satellite images and video streaming, it might seem that the ability to interpret paper maps has become an obsolete skill. In environmental education, however, there is still much to be learned from maps and mapping. Producing simple sketch maps and reading printed maps, such as highway or topographic maps, can help students connect to the natural world in a variety of ways. Maps can be used to define an area of study and identify components of it, to locate a trail or to plan a restoration project. Historic maps can bring to life stories of exploration and adventure and reveal changes in landscapes over time. Maps are necessary components of one of the core activities of outdoor education — orienteering. And the best thing about maps is that they still work when the battery goes dead on your GPS!
Just like written languages or the language of mathematics, maps are information systems that convey ideas. In order to read and utilize use this information, students must be able to “read” a map. This requires an understanding of the components of map language and the mastering of certain map skills. These are:
- the concept of a map
- map vocabulary
- map symbols
- map mathematics
- map conventions
Let us look at each of these in detail.
The concept of a map
A map is a reduced representation and abstraction of aspects of the real world. Reading a map requires that students understand the following concepts:
- A map transports the observer to a point vertically above the landscape.
- The scale of all real objects is reduced.
- Not all of the objects in the landscape are represented (selective representation).
- All objects are reduced to symbols, either printed words or pictorial representations, or both.
Map vocabulary
Words associated with maps are of two classes:
- General map vocabulary consists of words used in everyday speech that describe objects or situations represented on maps. Simple examples are islands, lakes, highways and churches. More abstract examples are directions, such as north and south, and large objects, such as countries and continents, that often cannot be observed in their entirety — except possibly by a map!
- Specific map vocabulary consists of terms related to how maps “work.” There is a correspondence between specific map vocabulary and map-reading skills. For example, graphic scale is a term that has value to learners only if they are taught how to use a graphic scale on a map. Other examples are legend, grid, contour line, bench mark and isopach. As maps become more complex or more specific in intent, the list of specific map terms becomes more extensive.
Most maps, with the exception of rudimentary sketch maps, require that the map reader be familiar with a large number of general and specific map terms. As an example, the official road map of my own province contains slightly over 100 terms that need to be understood in order to make full use of the map.
Map symbols
It is impossible to depict objects on a map exactly as they appear to us in reality. There are two reasons for this limitation. First, there is too much detail in real objects to be shown at the reduced scale of a map. Second, the view of objects from above (the map view) is different from the horizontal or oblique view that we typically have of real objects. A gasoline storage tank and a can of beans look pretty much the same from above!
Objects depicted on maps are reduced to symbols, many of which have become universally recognized and accepted. Most of us have at least some map symbols stored in our general knowledge. The “H” for hospital is an example. Map symbols often resemble the real object; for example, an airplane is used as the symbol for an airport on most maps. When teachers begin introducing maps to students, they are, in effect, introducing a third set of symbols that children must learn (after the alphabet and the symbols of mathematics).
The easiest symbols for students to learn are those that represent objects for which they already have a vocabulary and a mental image. A bridge is one example: the map symbol may not look exactly like a bridge, but the student understands the concept. More challenging are concepts for which the vocabulary is new to the student and no visual image exists. An example is contour lines on topographic maps. Contour lines are depicted as brown lines joining points of equal elevation by means of pictures or models before the meaning of a contour line becomes clear to them.
Map Mathematics
When students’ understanding of map concepts, vocabulary and symbols has been developed to some extent, the teacher can begin to introduce map skills. These may be simple or complex.
A simple map skill may be defined as one having a minimum number of steps, requiring limited mathematics and involving manipulations in only one area of the map. An example of a simple map skill is finding the direction one must travel in order to go from point A to point B. Students can place a transparent compass rose over point A, line up north on the compass with north on the map, locate point B and determine the direction from A to B. The direction in degrees is then read from the compass rose. Another simple mathematics exercise would be to calculate the production of a particular product in a country by adding together a number of symbols (such as circles of different sizes) that depict production in several places.
Complex map mathematics involve more steps, require the use of mathematics and may involve more than one area of the map. In many cases, complex map skills develop from simple map skills. The example above is the basis for teaching compass bearings and distance. A complex map skill should be broken into its sub-steps for teaching purposes. For example, a lesson on the use of a graphic scale on a road map might have the following steps.
- Use a fully divided graphic scale (one that begins at 0 and has a mark for each unit, such as a kilometre).
- Find a distance that falls exactly on a primary division of the scale (such as a 5 or 10, called a primary tick).
- Find a distance that falls exactly on a least count of the scale (such as 7).
- Find a distance that falls between two least counts (such as 13½).
- Find a distance longer than the graphic scale depicted on the map.
- Use an open divided graphic scale, one in which the zero is within the boundaries of the scale and the only fully divided subsection is to the left of zero.
The most complex map skills are those that require a combination of several simple and complex skills. Plotting a course for a ship using a map and a magnetic compass is a good example. It takes into consideration direction, magnetic declination, speed, distance, current, vectors and water depth.
Map conventions
A map convention is an element that over time has become standardized on all maps, or on the most common types of map. These are some examples: The use of colour on maps as a form of symbolism has resulted in a map convention that blue stands for water on almost all maps, except ocean charts. Printing on bodies of water is slanted to the right, while printing on land is vertical. North is at the top of the map. Larger print denotes larger or more important features. Finally, it is a convention that maps contain five elements: title, direction, scale, grid and legend.
Map interpretation
Mastery of the language of maps allows the reader to interpret the information that maps convey. There are three levels of map interpretation:
Direct interpretation
In direct interpretation, information is read directly from the map by recognizing map symbols and using simple map skills. Direct interpretation answers such questions as:
- Is there an airport at city A?
- What city is located south of point B?
- What highway links A to B
- What is the name of the river on this map?
Deduced interpretation
In deduced interpretation, information on the map is manipulated in order to reach a conclusion that cannot be read directly from the map. Deduced interpretation can result in more than one correct answer to a question. Examples of questions with one correct answer are:
- How far is it in a straight line from A to B?
- What is the shortest highway route from A to B? (Where more than one highway is involved).
Examples of questions with more than one possible answer are:
- What route could you take to travel from city A to city B (where highway, rail and air travel are all possible)?
- If you were injured in an accident at point A on the highway, what would be the most accessible hospital? (There may be two or more nearby cities with hospital symbols, so distance and travel routes are important.)
Inferred interpretation
The highest level of map interpretation is the inference of information that is not in evidence on the map. As an example, where a highway ends at a lake and the same highway number appears on the other side of the lake, it can be inferred that there is ferry service from one side to the other and that the ferry symbol is lacking for one reason or another. Another example of inference is that a large city depicted on a map would have more facilities than a smaller one. Inferred interpretations can be confirmed only by other references, such as site visits or photos.
Students at the primary level seldom have the cognitive development and accumulated knowledge to make inferred map interpretations. Even at the upper elementary and junior high levels, students often lack the life experiences needed to make good inferred interpretations. At the upper elementary and junior high levels, students often make inferred interpretations based on limited life experiences. In the example of the highway and lake, students may infer that the ferry exists, but do not extend the idea to question what happens in the winter if the lake freezes. In this case, the inference is that the highway is closed in the winter.
Maps in environmental education
In environmental education, maps are useful resources for linking learning about the natural world and the human impact on it. Maps can provide information on population distributions, vegetation patterns, waterways and the location of natural resources. They can show changes in landscapes over time, such as the replacement of fields and forests by urban development. Maps are tools for the measurement, interpretation, protection, projection and planning of an area. In any study of an environmental issue an understanding of the physical world is crucial. For example, in a study of threatened or endangered species, a map can define the historic, present and projected range of an animal species that has been affected by human activity and is now threatened by climate change. Maps can be the jumping off point for discussion, research and planning.
For students, mapmaking is a way of gaining understanding of their local area. Producing a sketch map can help to define spatial relationships, patterns of development and areas of environmental concern. A series of sketch maps could be produced to project positive change in an area that is undergoing an environmental makeover.
In some instances, maps can be the prime method of communication for students with specific language difficulties or for whom English is a second language.
Mapping a natural area
One of the best mapping activities for upper elementary and middle school students is to make a sketch map of a natural area.
- Choose an area that has a defined boundary, either natural (e.g., stream, tree line) or human-made (e.g., fence, roadway, telephone pole). Have students orient themselves toward the north using a compass. Decide what will be the purpose of the map. For example, it may be to show the location of bluebird nesting boxes.
- Walk the area, observing and discussing boundaries, vegetation, waterways, human-made objects, and other features of interest. During the discussion, note the relative position of one feature to another, the direction of roadways and other linear features, the size of features relative to the overall study area and other pertinent information such as safety concerns.
- Have the students outline the boundary of the area on a sheet of paper and note the direction of north. If it is not possible to see the entire study area from the starting point, the students can construct the boundary as they progress through the area.
- Have students walk the area a second time. Depending on the class, this may be done as a large group activity or in small groups. The students add features to their sketch map using a combination of symbols and titles. For example, a roadway may be shown as a double line with information about the road printed between the lines. A grove of trees may be identified with a drawing of a single tree and the heading “trees.” Nesting boxes may be designated with a square and the abbreviation “NB.”
Limit the number of features to be shown. On most maps, single trees would not be identified unless there are very few of them in the area and they are significant. Similarly, buildings could be identified singly, but not if they are part of a subdivision.
- Back in the classroom, provide each student with a sheet of paper that has a border and an area designated as “Legend.” The study area will be defined by the border of the page. A scale, such as “X cm = Y meters” is optional.
- Have the students orient the map sheets to north and transfer the information from their field sketch to the map sheet, using a pencil and, if available, drafting devices such as straight edges and compasses. Emphasize that features should be drawn lightly in case they need to be adjusted later.
- Have students translate information on the sketch map to standardized or agreed upon symbols on the final copy. These symbols are added to the legend as needed.
- When students have finished their maps, have them then work in pairs or trios to compare them and, through discussion, add or adjust information on the maps. Two maps can be laid over one another and held up to a window to compare information. When the students are in agreement, the features can then be coloured or retraced to add detail. Finally, have students give titles to their maps.
Inexpensive, portable and just plain fun to use and create, maps will continue to have a role to play in the interpretation of the real world around us for some time to come.
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Bert Murphy is a lecturer in outdoor and environmental education in the Faculty of Teacher Education at Brock University in St. Catharines, Ontario, and a former consultant in environmental education for the District School Board of Niagara in southern Ontario.