Originally appears in the Spring 2012 issue

Most professions are equipped with tools that enable them to perform their work more effectively and achieve their objectives in an efficient way. In the same way that the microscope and stethoscope are indispensable tools for science and medicine, so are environmental-based technologies indispensable to geography, the environmental sciences and environmental education (Smith, 2005). Environmental-based technologies like remote sensing (RS) and geographic information systems (GIS), when utilized in these subjects, can provide an unmatched learning experience for students. Unfortunately, not many teachers harness these tools in the classroom, usually due to a lack of skills for implementing them, or a difficulty in accessing computer systems, or other necessary digital data and resources (Galloro, 2002).

The purpose of this article is to highlight the importance of GIS and other environmental-based technologies, and offer teachers various ways of using them in the classroom without the hassle of learning GIS software and booking computer rooms. It describes the benefits of GIS and other environmental-based technologies, and provides classroom activities for teachers to utilise. The article also touches on some of the difficulties teachers may encounter when using GIS. Most importantly, the simple non computer-based activities in the article avert some of the systemic issues encountered with computerized GIS. These activities include:

  • Using overlays on time-elapsed aerial photography to analyze polar icecap changes
  • Using topographic maps and transparency overlays to determine the best site for a mall or a garbage dump
  • An additional activity—investigating the extent of damage from a tsunami —can be accessed online at www.greenteacher.com/contents95

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What is GIS?

GIS is an acronym for “geographic information system”. Several definitions for GIS exist, but, in essence, GIS is an investigative tool with several functionalities, made up of powerful software, hardware (computer systems, digitizers, printers, global positioning systems [GPS], and so on), and a human interface. These functionalities include data input capabilities, storage, and rapid or automated output, editing and transformations, spatial/geometric analysis and operations, and presentation of geographic data in the form of graphs, tables, maps or in statistical format. Although GIS has been well defined in the literature, several definitions and explanations of its capabilities, like the one above, are riddled with technical terms. To avoid getting bogged down in these technicalities, we’ll define GIS here “as a set of tools that transforms geographical data into geographical information and thereby increases our knowledge and/or helps us solve geography-related” (Rod et al, 2010, p. 22) or environment-related issues and make informed decisions

Benefits of GIS for students

GIS provides opportunities for students to participate in real-world spatial problem solving. It supports a broad range of analytical methods vital to environmental science, most importantly through its ability to track and display environmental occurrences like forest fires, flooding, hurricanes, tornadoes, oil spills and ice melt in real-time. As an analytical tool, GIS enables students to gain considerable understanding of spatial distribution patterns and processes, which is vital to such tasks as choosing the location of a dump site, mapping out an animal migratory pattern, or in designing environmentally efficient and cost-effective routes for school buses (Bednarz, 2004). It also has the ability to bridge both outdoor and indoor environmental education.

With GIS, students can acquire and interpret data almost instantly. Due to its capabilities, GIS is beneficial to students in the following ways:

  1. The use of GIS supports the teaching and learning of environmental education in general (Bednarz, 2004).
  2. The mapping and querying functions of GIS empower students to become active users of spatial data, active learners of geography, environmental related subjects and issues (Lloyd, 2001).
  3. GIS facilitates Problem-Based Learning (PBL) and Inquiry-Based Learning in secondary schools (Johannson, 2003).
  4. GIS lessons focus on student-run inquiry, promoting higher-order thinking skills, abstract thinking and inferences while enhancing prediction ability (Linn & Kerski, 2005).
  5. GIS equips students with a vital tool for future application in sciences, environmental sciences, engineering, social sciences or geography.
  6. GIS transcends geography and the environmental sciences—it can combine elements from several other core subjects like history or mathematics. For example, it can be an unmatchable tool in historical analysis based on documenting past geographical changes in a database.

Difficulties with computer-based GIS        

The use of GIS in teaching, albeit very attractive, is not without its problems. Teachers often report a range of constraints that have discouraged them from using (computerized) GIS, including lack of time, training, computer systems and software (Lloyd, 2001). While these limitations may need to be dealt with before automated GIS can take centre stage in classroom learning, teachers can take solace in knowing that they do not need advance capabilities in order to bring stimulating GIS activities into their classrooms. Teachers might be surprised to learn that some of what they have already been doing in their classroom can be classified as a GIS activity.

As an alternative to the computerized version, manual GIS employs and develops the same analytical skills in students without the perplexity of GIS software and computer systems. Moreover, it can also be an excellent way of introducing students to computerized GIS due to the fact that as students manually manipulate datasets, they get a better understanding of the logic behind GIS functionalities. This helps to demystify the ‘magic’ of automated GIS as students get to the basics of how a GIS system really works, rather than keying in automatic commands in computers for automated analyses.

Manual GIS Activity Process

Manual GIS activities are straightforward and can easily be tailored to suit many applications. The flow chart below sums up the basic process of a manual GIS activity. Teachers can follow this process in exploring manual GIS activities in their classrooms.  Although portrayed as linear, manual GIS process may not always be as simplistic as the chart suggest.

Step 1: Identify

Identify the data needed for the analysis, and all required materials.

Step 2: Gather

Once all necessary data have been identified, the process of gathering the data can begin. At times, this stage presents the greatest trouble as some teachers may lack the knowledge of where and how to acquire all necessary data. The internet is a great resource for finding maps and aerial photographs. If the data for an activity is too difficult to obtain, switch up the activity or modify the activity for one that has accessible data.

Step 3: Organise         

Once all required data are assembled, arrange them in a systematic format. For example, data for the North Pole are separated from those for the South Pole. Map or aerial photograph data should be labelled and dated (if dates are missing), to avoid confusion.

Step 4: Analyse

At this stage, it is important to determine the type of analysis that will be necessary in order to arrive at a justifiable conclusion.

Step 5: Manage Data/Information

Several of the raw data used for analysis may not be necessary for final presentation. The student can decide (with the teacher’s guidance), to discard or archive raw data for future reference. Teachers (or students) can determine the format for the output of the analysis based on the task. The format could be a map, table of values or other statistical charts/tables. The final product may then be used for the next and final step.

Step 6: Report/Decisions

In the final stage, students write up their reports. This is where the student answers the ‘burning questions’ using all the evidence from the analysis. If the activity was a decision-based activity, students can make the necessary inferences and deductions using their findings.

GIS Figure 1

Manual GIS Activities

Below are two examples of manual GIS activities. (As mentioned above, an additional activity can be found at www.greenteacher.com/contents95) These activities exemplify the linear sequence described above. The objective of the tasks is to equip students with the tools and techniques of analysis necessary for investigating natural and man-made environmental events.

 

Activity 1: Determining Change – Polar Ice Melt

Description:  Using a manual GIS process, students investigate polar ice melt over the last 30 years, and develop a report on the extent of the melt (if any).

Grade Level:  9-12 (ages 13-18)

Background Knowledge: Students should be familiarized with the issue of polar ice melt and all steps of this GIS task before beginning the activity.

Materials:

  • aerial photographs or satellite imagery of the North and South Pole – one from 30 years ago and a recent one (both must be of the same scale and as similar as possible, for example, although taken 30 years apart, it should be pictures taken within the same month of the year to eliminate seasonal changes). NOTE: In the absence of 2 similar aerial photographs from the same area, a small scale topographic maps of the areas from the same season may also be used)
  • 1cm2 transparency grids
  • fine/medium tip erasable markers (assorted colors)
  • masking tape

Analysis – For this activity, a simple overlay analysis can be used to determine the extent of the Polar ice melt:

  1. Place transparent grids on the two aerial photographs (or topographical maps) of the North Pole.
  2. Mark edges (of map and transparency) to establish consistent orientation in case the transparency is removed.
  3. Using an erasable marker, delineate the North Pole boundary on the first aerial photograph/map (earlier date photo/map).
  4. Remove the transparency and place it on the second (more recent) North Pole photograph or map. Delineate the North Pole boundary, then return the transparency to its original map or aerial photograph and tape it down.
  5. Label the transparencies appropriately. For example, North Pole, 1980 and North Pole, 2011
  6. Using a different color marker, highlight all areas of visible polar ice on the two maps.
  7. Add up all the visible ice areas in the 1980 and the 2011 maps or aerial photograph using the square grids as a guide for calculating the area.
  8. Create a table of results similar to Table 1 below and record the amount of area still covered in ice and areas now bare of ice for years 1980 and 201
  9. Repeat the whole process for the South Pole data sets.  For visual effects and to demonstrate how an automated GIS works, place the two transparency grids over one another and if the ice area have been marked on the map or aerial photograph with different colours, the difference will be very apparent. This is one of the functionalities of an automated or computer GIS known as map overlay. So using this technique, the teacher has successfully taught the students how an overlay process functions and how it can be used in analysis.
  10. Report/Decisions: It is at this stage that the students will answer the ‘burning questions’ using all the evidence from their analysis. If the activity was a decision based activity, students can make their inferences and deductions using their findings. For instance, suggest with evidence that the polar ice is melting or not melting.

Table 1. An Example of Table of Result from Analysis

1980 2011 Percentage change
Grid Area covered in Ice
Bare area

Variation

The period of time between the two photographs can be more than 30 years if available.

The above activity can also be varied to include almost any aspect of human system as long as it occurs over space and time (spatio-temporal). For example, instead of determining change in the polar ice, the teacher can use other ‘before/after’ spatial data set like vegetation or urbanisation data to determine the extent of vegetation change or highlight the changes brought about by urban development and city encroachment over time. Furthermore, the impacts of developments on a river course (damming) can also be delineated and width measured using this technique. Additionally, the extent of damages caused by a forest fire can be analysed with appropriate data sets.

The options are endless and can only be limited by the teacher/students’ imagination. The teacher can also challenge the students, depending on their grade level; to come up with issues they can investigate using the overlay functionalities of manual GIS.

Activity #2: Site Selection 

The city you live in has decided to build a new dump site. This has become an issue because most people have the NIMBY (Not in My Back Yard) syndrome and will go to great lengths to prevent a dumpsite from being located close to them. The objective of this activity is to use GIS techniques to select the most appropriate site for the dump and at the same time provide evidence that the City has considered the best interests of its residents.

This task challenges the students to think about several aspects of the dump location. For example, it challenges them to investigate what distance residential buildings, schools or parks will have to be from a dumpsite in order to be considered acceptable. Depending on the students’ experience and grade level, the teacher can either provide them with a set of criteria for dump site location or ask the students to determine these by themselves. To select a satisfactory dump site, here are some criteria that will have to be considered.

  1. The specific size of the dump
  2. Acceptable distance from schools, residential houses, factories, parks, or railways (other parameters may also be considered)
  3. Maximum access to a major (e.g. 500m), not too far, for easy entrance of dump trucks and not too close as to cause unhealthy odor and unsightly scenery.
  4. Elevation map (optional, if class if advanced), to eliminate locating the site uphill and causing ground water contamination of places downhill.

NOTE: Various municipalities have regulatory distance that it allows a dumpsite from residential building to avoid odor inhalation. It could be a thousand meters radius around site or more. This is opportunity for students to visit the local municipal office and find out this information.

Grade Level: This activity is suitable for grades 9-12

Background Knowledge

Students should be familiar with reading topographic maps.

Materials Needed

Large scale topographic map of the area (1:25 000 or 1:50 000), 6 equal size/identical 1cm2 grid transparencies, a set of erasable markers (various colours) and a light table if available (otherwise, teacher can use of a makeshift glass table with lamp stands underneath or a data projector.

NOTE: Aerial imagery may be used. The down side of using an aerial photograph in this instance is that it may  require initial analysis in order to extract all the necessary information. (If the teacher feels capable, this process of aerial photograph analysis can be used for teaching the process of image analysis. Otherwise, the teacher can use topographic maps.)

Data Collection/Analysis Steps

Using the criteria highlighted in the introduction above, the students will extract all necessary information that will be needed during the analysis phase.  Using the transparency grids, they will create 3 different data sets for this analysis.

  1. Place first transparency over topographic map and set orientation by marking the corners.
  2. Using an erasable marker, locate all empty regions with square areas that meets or exceed the dump site area specification (Hint: if students have trouble determining what the size of the area should look like, the teacher can measure and pre-cut the specific size on a cardboard piece of paper for the students to use). Label this as ‘Layer 1’.
  3. Using another transparency and a different colour marker, trace out all major roads that meet the road specification for the dump site requirement (for example, major roads). Measure and create a buffer of 500m buffer (perimeter) around the roads. Colour the buffer zone with a different color marker. Label this transparency as ‘Layer 1’.
  4. Using a third transparency grid and a different colour marker, mark out all schools, parks, factories and railways. Create a buffer zone of 1000m or as determined by the municipal regulation around these infrastructures and colour this zone. Title this grid ‘Layer 3’
  5. Lay out the transparency labelled ‘Layer 1’ out first on a flat surface or if a light table is available, it can be laid on it. Ensure that the transparency grid is taped firmly to the table.
  6. Place Layer 2 and 3 on top of Layer 1. Ensure that all Layers are at the same orientation.
  7. By the time Layer 3 is firmly secured and aligned with the other Layers, it should be easy to see through all the three data sets. Areas in data set LAYER 1 that remains uncovered with objects from Layer 2 and 3 will be the suitable site for locating a dump.
  8.  A forth transparency can be used to outline all suitable sites. Label this forth transparency as ‘Suitable Sites’.
  9. Finally, the ‘Suitable Site’ transparency can now be placed on the topographic map (check for correct orientation), where the selected areas will be visible amidst the city.
  10. The required output is the topographic map with all the possible suitable locations for the dump site visibly marked or highlighted. Students can now make their recommendation on which site is most suitable. If more than one site is identified, they can also rank these sites from most suitable to least suitable, giving their rationale for each ranking.

NOTE: While students may come up with one or more probable sites, it should be noted that their analysis may also result in no site at all. Not finding a suitable site when all the established criteria have been taken into account is also an acceptable possibility.

Several teachers have probably used some of the described activities without linking it to GIS. With this article, I hope that teachers who are yet to try these activities can incorporate some of them into their classroom lesson and observe the impact on their students and their teaching.

In all the activities, various environmental-based technologies, like RS and GPS have been utilised without conscious thought about them. Remotely sensed data (aerial photograph or satellite imagery) have been used. These are just few and simple ways of overcoming the systemic issues associated with the use of an automated GIS. As teachers continue to use this manual approach, hopefully, their confidence in tackling and understanding an automated GIS will increase and when the opportunity presents itself to use a computer GIS, it may not be as challenging as it would seen before they used the manual methods.

 

References

Bednarz, S.W., “Geographic Information Systems: A tool to support geography and environmental education,” GeoJournal 60 (2004), pp. 191-199.

Galloro, J., “Human activity and the environment: A vital resources for teachers and students,” School Libraries in Canada 22(1), (2002), pp. 21-22.

Johansson, T., “GIS in teacher education-facilitating GIS applications in secondary school geography,” ScanGIS online papers (2003), pp. 285-293.

Linn, S., Kerski, J.,& Wither, S., “Development of evaluation tools for GIS: How does GIS affect student learning?” International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education 14(3), (2005), pp. 217-222.

Lloyd, W.J., “Integrating GIS into the undergraduate learning environment,” Journal of Geography 100(5), (2001), pp. 158-163.

Rod, J. K., Larsen, W. & Nilsen, E., “Learning geography with GIS: Integrating GIS into upper secondary school geography curricula,” Norwegian Journal of Geography 64 (2005), pp. 21-35.

Smith, J.S., “Flow theory and GIS: IS there a connection for learning?” International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education 14(3), (2005), pp. 223-230.

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Blessing Igbokwe is a teacher with the Greater Essex County District School Board, and a PhD student at the Faculty of Education, University of Windsor in Ontario.

An additional activity—investigating the extent of damage from a tsunami —can be accessed online at www.greenteacher.com/contents95